A political, Economic, and Social history of Iberian Peninsula
Korean Minjok Leadership Academy
International Program
Lee, Se Hee
Term Paper, AP European History Class, June 2011
Table of Contents
Ⅰ. Introduction
Ⅱ. Background information
Ⅲ. Political history
Ⅲ. 1. The politics of Muslims in medieval Spain
Ⅲ. 2. Politics of Christian kingdoms in medieval Spain
Ⅲ. 3. The kingdom of Portugal
Ⅲ . 4. Comparing politics between Muslims and Christians
Ⅳ. Economic history
Ⅳ. 1. Comparing economy between Muslims and Christians
Ⅳ. 2. Economy of Portugal
Ⅳ. 3. Commercial relationship between Muslims and Christians
Ⅴ. Social history
Ⅴ. 1. Social system of Muslims
Ⅴ. 2. Change of social structure to Christian kingdoms (medieval Spain)
Ⅴ. 3. Social structure of Portugal
Ⅵ. Conclusion
Notes
Bibliography
Ⅰ. Introduction
In AD 711, Iberian Peninsula had been invaded by Moors under the leader named Tariq and the Peninsula was called ‘Al-Andalus’ under Muslim rule (1). Then, Christian kingdoms which had been conquered by Muslims started to retake Iberian Peninsula from Muslims from 718 through 1492. This process is called ‘Reconquista’ (2).
During Reconquista period, while the shift of power from Islam to Christian kingdoms, Iberian Peninsula suffered remarkable changes politically, economically, and socially. So, this paper will focus on how political, economic and social history of Iberian Peninsula was changed during Reconquista.
Largely, this paper is composed of three parts, political history, economic history, and social history. Also comparing the histories between Muslims and Christians will be the main materials in the each part.
Ⅱ. Background information
Iberian Peninsula is located in between the southeastern Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea (3). This Iberian Peninsula faces to the African continent across the strait of Gibraltar. There are two countries in the peninsula today, the first is Spain and the second country is Portugal. Before that Spain and Portugal become the only countries, the peninsula had been divided into a lot of Muslim and Christian kingdoms. So, in this paper, Spain means several Christian kingdoms such as Castile, Aragon, and Navarra because Spain was established after Reconquista.
Ⅲ. Political history
Ⅲ. 1. Politics of Muslims in medieval Spain
Since Tariq occupied Iberian Peninsula, a lot of Islamic kingdoms repeated to emerge and collapse. The first was the Emirate dependent on the Caliph in Damascus from 711 to 756. During this period, the peninsula was under the rule of Vali who had belonged to Damascus Caliphate authorities. The government and administrative organization of this period was derived from those of Umayyad dynasty.
And then, Abd al-Rahman I gained independence from Damascus Caliphate and established the Independent Umayyad Emirate (756-929). He chose new government and administrative structure of Abbasid Caliphate of Iraq. Its new system had features of nepotism and every power was concentrated to Emir, so Emir could exercise his absolute power (7).
This Umayyad Emirate was developed to the Caliphate of Córdoba (929-1031) by Abd al-Rahman III. At that time, the government was pressured by Fatima dynasty based in Egypt Cairo. When Fatima dynasty declared that they are caliphate, likewise Abd al-Rahman III proclaimed that his country is caliphate to struggle against them.
As the Caliphate of Córdoba slowly decayed, Al- Andalus was disintegrated into small states and this period called the first Taifas (1031-c. 1091). This division to lots of small Taifa kingdoms caused weakness of Muslim forces and further beginning of Reconquista.
Due to occupation of Toledo by Christians in 1085, Muslims suffered economic crisis and chaos of internal affairs. Finally, Arabs needed Almoravids’ aid. As Almoravids who had settled in Northern Africa landed on the Iberian Peninsula, small Taifa kingdoms were unified by them, and Almoravid rule started from 1091.
Before long, the second Taifas (c.1145-c. 1151) formed again because of revolt of Muslims. Then, Almohads crossed to the peninsula to integrate those Taifa kingdoms and Almoravids. It was the start of the Almohad rule (c.1031–1212).
The last Islamic kingdom was Nasrid Dynasty of the Kingdom of Granada. This kingdom of Granada lasted until 1492, while other Islamic kingdoms had disappeared gradually being absorbed into Christian kingdoms.
During Caliphate period, administration was basically concentrated to diwan and it was divided into cancilleria which kept king’s official seal and hacienda which took charge of accounts. Administrative and juridical duties were controlled by prime minister who was entrusted with every authority from Emir. Visir which was ministerial office in economic part and catib which corresponded to today’s secretary of the state constituted the second position of the government. Cancilleria could appoint only one visir, but it changed to four principal offices after Abd al-Rahamn II’s reformation.
Administrative distinct was ruled by vali being separated to inland area (cura ocora) and borderland (tagr) which was military occupied land. Mostly, inland area was managed by civilian and borderland was controlled by soldiers called kaides.
Ⅲ. 2. Politics of Christian kingdoms in medieval Spain
During Reconquista period, several Christian kingdoms were founded. The first Christian kingdom which formed in conquered Iberian Peninsula by Muslims was Asturias kingdom. In 10th century, Castile and earldom of Portugal emerged and the peninsula was separated into several kingdoms from 11th to 12th century. However, from 12th century, Christian kingdoms remained only four such as Castile-Leon, Aragon, Navarra, and Portugal.
The kingdom of Leon emerged as Alfonso I from the kingdom of Asturias conquered the Leon. And Castile was the part of earldom of Asturias-Leon, but during the reign of Ferdinand Gonzalez, he expanded territory and finally achieved independence from the kingdom of Leon.
These two kingdoms, Leon and Castile were united in Dynastic Union and Ferdinand I who unified two kingdoms acceded to the throne. Afterwards, the kingdom of Castile-Leon repeated integration and division and in the period of Ferdinand III’s reign, Castile-Leon was completely unified. At that time, Castile-Leon enjoyed the greatest prosperity and honor.
Aragon was one of the earldom lands of the kingdom of Navarra in the 9th century. After death of Sancho III, his son named Ramiro Sanchez inherited the kingdom of Aragon from his father. He expanded influence to the west and took participate in Reconquista. King founded royal advisory council and Governor-General building on 14 places to serve the king. Also, king of Aragon established vice-king system which appointed substitute of the king in each state.
Navarra was established as a kingdom of Pamplona, and participated in Reconquista from 10th century. Sancho III tried to integrate various Christian kingdoms, so he occupied Sobrarbe and Ribagorza to unify earldom of Castile to the land of Pamplona. But this hegemony among Christian kingdoms finished with death of Sancho III. From 13th century, the kingdom of Navarra started to be dominated by Champana family.
Ⅲ. 3. The kingdom of Portugal
As Reconquista progressed, one of the House of Burgundy named D. Henrique contributed to victory of Christian kingdoms. And his son, Afonso Henrique who had succeeded D. Henrique continued war against Moors. At the same time, he conducted war against king of Castile-Leon named Afonso VII for independence of earldom of Portugal which had been considered as feudatory of Castile-Leon kingdom. In 1139, Afonso Henrique won the Ourique war against Muslim force and he declared that he is the king of Portugal. However, independence of Portugal was not so easy because prelates of Portugal were subordinated to Castile (4). Finally, Portugal achieved independence in 1143 and even the title of king was confirmed by the pope and admitted Portugal as an independent nation which is protected by Holy See in 1179.
In Portugal, the parliamentary system was implemented early. This system was ‘cortes’ and its origin is from ‘consiglio’ of visigothic kingdom (5). In the beginning, abbots, bishops, leader of knights called mestre and wealthy nobility including earls were delegates of the cortes. After 1254, king encouraged representatives of citizen to participate in cortes, but its purpose was to collect high taxes. The main agenda of the cortes was about change of currency, tax collection and peace treaty or war against hostile countries.
Also, king of Portugal authorized right to self-administer selecting several important towns and invested special rights to them. It was called concelhos which means kind of municipalities (6). Its authority of administration was delegated to free men.
Ⅲ . 4. Comparing politics between Muslims and Christians
While Christians’ power became stronger than Muslims’ through Reconquista, Christians’ influence increased and politics also changed to their way. And a form of politics which Christians had was different with rule of Muslim in many points.
Their government structures were completely different. While most of the Muslim kingdoms which had existed during reconquista period such as Umayyad caliphate, Almohad dynasty and Almoravid dynasty adopted caliphate for government, Christian kingdoms was a monarchy.
Muslims brought their unique political system from their homeland and kept it in the Iberian Peninsula. The government is based on religious foundation. Kingdoms were governed by the laws of Allah and during Caliphate period, successors of Muhammad called Caliph administered the kingdom. Mostly, absolute power is centered to one leader such as Emir of Umayyad Emirate or Caliph of Umayyad caliphate, Almoravids and Almohads. In contrast, government of Christian kingdoms is based on feudalism. Its political system is kingship which king is responsible for several duties that he should protect Catholic faith and frontiers, administer justice and appoint vassals who serves the king (8). And bishops, magnates and abbots are considered as high position of government, so they attended the royal council to advise the king.
In territorial administration, Muslim kingdoms of al-Andalus developed the provincial administration during Umayyad dynasty and it kept until Almohad dynasty. So, al-andalus formed territorial administration which members of royal family administered provinces under the Almoravids and Almohads. But still, their self-government was deficient comparing to Christian kingdoms. Christian kingdoms developed municipalities called concejos. Christian kingdoms had built up kind of democratic politics through these municipalities. Each person had a right to speak and vote, and their basic rights and obligations were guaranteed by the charters named fueros (9). Also, concejo elected judicial and political head of the town in Leon, Castile and Portugal (10) and maintained their municipalities through this way.
Their policy toward other ethnic groups also showed difference each other. While Reconquista progressed, some Muslims remained in Christian states. And the Muslims who continued to live in Christian states after change of rule were called Mudejars (11). Christian kingdoms let them to last crafts and their own culture. However, the old policy of tolerance toward other religions changed. Compared to Muslim’s tolerance toward religion and other ethnic group, Christian kingdoms tried to unify races and religions. There were a lot of Muslims in Aragon kingdom and not only the Jews had dominated finance and banking, but also they assumed important position of kingdom and administrative organs. Also, the government worried growth of Muslim population by high birth-rate of Muslims. For these reasons, the public in Christian kingdoms had detested them and Christian kingdoms started to persecute them. Eventually, Christian kings allowed the inquisition and ordered pagans’ conversion of religion or deportation. So, many Muslims and the Jews were expelled from the country. (12)
Ⅳ. Economic history
Ⅳ. 1. Comparing economy between Muslims and Christians
Economy of Al-Andalus was different from Western Europe’s self-sufficient economic system. Muslims already developed trade through the Mediterranean Sea and commercial activity. So, they were remarkable at handicraft industry and cities prospered, too. Most of all, Cordoba was the center of commerce and industry. However, from 11th century, its center moved to Seville.
Muslims agriculture was mainly dry type. However, they expanded irrigation cannels, cistern and water wheel, so production of land was increased. Even they could cultivate new crops such as orange, peach, saffron, dates, sugarcane and cotton.
The craft guild formed with development of handicraft and industrial products in urban economy. The most developed industry was wool industry. Especially, Silk from Almeria, leatherwares and accessories from Cordoba, iron weapon from Toledo were very famous.
This development of industry in cities built up more trade among regions, so each city had markets called zoco. Muslims had kept exchanging and procuring cereals between cities and rural areas. These trades could be expanded because of network of road which was made in Roman times. Muslims also minted coins such as gold coin (diner), silver coin (dirhem), copper coin (felus) for trade. Their major productions were textile, furs and ceramic objects (13).
In contrast, in the beginning of Reconquista, economy of Christian kingdoms was less advanced than Al-Andalus. Trade was limited to local markets. In case of Leon-Castile and Asturias-Leon area, their economy was poor focusing on agriculture and stock farming. The kingdom of Pamplona’s arms manufacturing industry was very advanced because brought metal industry appeared in Pyrenean area through water power and water wheel from 9th century.
After 13th century, economy of Castile was developed through wool industry affected by reconquered Al-Andalus. In Leon-Castile, stock farming was regarded as more important than agriculture and production of wool contributed to trades. Economy of Aragon was based on industry and commerce, and Barcelona had been center of commerce and overseas trade, so the bourgeoisie formed. The main trade goods of Catalonia were wheat, textile, mineral, iron, dyestuffs and slaves.
Ⅳ. 2. Economy of Portugal
As Portugal emerged as an independent nation, agriculture became the first economic activity (14). And hunting, fishing industry and cottage industry supplemented the shortage of agriculture. With some mining, local manufacture of iron implements developed, so necessary farm tools such as horseshoes, nails and plowshares were produced.
In the 13th and 14th centuries, trade developed internally and externally, so the economy of Portugal expanded rapidly with connection of agriculture and commerce. While the trading, Jewish people mediated between Muslims and Christians.
Their major exports were wine, olive oil and salt. Also their most important imported goods were textile, weapon, metal, grain, timber, spices and smoked fish and meat.
Ⅳ. 3. Commercial relationship between Muslims and Christians
In the beginning of Reconquista, Christian kingdoms built up a commercial relationship with Al-Andalus, but its level was no more than infinitesimal thing though circulation of money with Umayyad was found out.
During the 11th and 12th century, as trade through the Mediterranean Sea thrived, commercial contacts between Muslims and Christians increased and trade between them was also broadened, too. It was not only because credit instruments developed, but also because production increased by expansion of consumption from local level to international level. In addition, circulation of coinage which had become more active than the beginning of Reconquista contributed to improvement of commercial relationship between them.
Furthermore, Muslims and Christian kingdoms exchanged that as Christian kingdoms exported raw materials, Muslims gave finished products for that to Christian kingdoms. Moreover, Christian kingdoms depended on Muslims’ monetary system. Al-Andalus imposed silver standard based on dirhem and Afonso II of Leon had introduced this new silver standard affected by Andalusi dirhem (15). These are shows interdependence between Christian kingdoms and Muslims.
Ⅴ. Social history
Ⅴ. 1. Social system of Muslims
In Al-Andalus, the social structure was classified largely into Muslim and non-Muslim. Muslims were composed of Arabs, Berbers, Syrians, Slavs and Persians.
Non-Muslims were Jews and Mozarabs, and they paid special taxes such as land tax named kharaj and poll tax called jizya. The Jews stood out in the economy and science enjoying their freedom. Mozarabs were Christians who preserved their own unique social organization like religion, language, culture and custom in Muslim states. (16) These Mozarabs played an important role in development of economy and in relationship with Christian kingdoms. They were also outstanding in architectural field. Later, however, both the Jews and Mozarabs were persecuted under Almoravid rule, so they escaped to Christian Spain. (17)
In theory, all Muslims were equal before the god and the law, but there clearly existed social classes among them (18). The upper class was Khassa, which means nobility. Mostly, the Arabs belonged to the nobility class and they were taking the best land and the high-ranking position in the administration. The middle class called amma settled as minor officers and rich merchants, also they were engaged in self-employment. Commoners called plebe were constituted of habitants in around rural areas and cities. Slaves (esclavos) were numerous, which only slaves who had served caliph are estimated about 14,000 in Cordoba in the tenth century. (19)
In 10th century, Mawali which means non-Arabs who converted to Islam and Mawla, descendants of visigothic slaves who converted from Christianity to Islam formed their large community. (20) Also, many nobles converted to Islam not to lose their own land, and they were called Muwalladun.
Ⅴ. 2. Change of social structure to Christian kingdoms (Spain)
While Christian kingdoms expanded their influence in the whole peninsula, the society got out from Muslims’ method to classify the social structure depends on whether believe in Islam or not. Christian kingdoms’ classification of social structure was not emerged rigorously because they were endeavored to reconquer and repopulation. In Christian kingdoms, nobility took the best position in the society with privileged status and social influence. The highest class of nobility called rico hombre in Castile-Leon, and baron in Aragon. There existed the middle classes and lower classes of nobility under them. In Castile, second-class nobility was called infanzon and nobility came from their blood and birth was hidalgo (21).
General public was in juridical condition of free man and they were usually divided into encomendados, libertos and colonos (22). During the former period, the most population of free men was tenants. But latterly, new party of free man emerged such as merchant with urban growth. Encomendados which means consignment manager who were land owners and they paid for rent. They commended to the protection of landlords because of insecurity due to Muslims attack. Libertos were Emancipated slaves. They could enjoy entire freedom and chose their owner in Asturias-Leon kingdom. However, they often bound to former owners in Christian kingdoms. Colonos were majority peasants who bound to the soil. They had been descended from the colonus of Roman and Visigoths. They were called iuniores in Galicia and Leon, and the term collatii was used from the 10th century. They were also known as mesquini in Aragon and Navarra, and pagenses, commanentes and stantes in Catalonia .
Mozarabs who escaped from Muslim states were important elements of Christian states because they brought developed culture, high level of farming technique and craftsmanship to Christian kingdoms. Based on these imported culture, they contributed to the advancement of Christian kingdoms.
Ⅴ. 3. Social structure of Portugal
Social class of Portugal was divided into three classes, clergy, nobility and the rest of the population which includes peasants, serfs and slaves. First, the clergy was the class which administered the parishes and monasteries. King entrusted the important role of kingdom to them, so their main role was to assist the king as a guardian of royal authority.
The nobility consisted of ricos homens, infançoes and fidalgos (23). The ricos homens were the highest rank of nobility who had high position in the kingdom and possessed estates which enabled them to use freely. The infançoes couldn’t have any legal status, but only profit came from their birthright. The fidalgos were kind of warrior status who was vested with privilege which could cultivate the land of kingdom.
Among the commoners, peasants were the most part of the population. Specifically, they were classified depends on wealth. The rich peasants or commoners possessed privilege such as exemption of tax on arable land, while various kinds of taxation and responsibility were imposed to the poor.
Serfs who had settled down in the conquered land and worked for production activity during Reconquista, was regarded as inclusion of the land when the land was sold. However, they couldn’t be sold freely.
The Slaves are the lowest level of society, and consisted of Moors who had been captured during Reconquista war. They were worked off their feet keeping chained to prevent them from fleeing.
Ⅵ. Conclusion
As mentioned above, a lot of changes occurred in Iberian Peninsula politically, economically and socially. As Christians reconquered the peninsula, the power moved from Muslims to Christians. So, this event called Reconquista which was from 718 through 1492 showed two different forms in Politics, economy and society. In political history, a lot of Islamic and Christian kingdoms were founded and collapse during Reconquista period. And there are differences in politics between Christian kingdoms and Muslims in government structure, policy and political direction. In economy, level of economic development is different each other, but meanwhile, interdependence between Muslims and Christian kingdoms also existed in those differences. In social history, their social structures and ethnic composition showed variety.
Like this, two different political, economic and social histories coexisted in Iberian Peninsula, and remained as a culture and important history of Iberian Peninsula until now. I believe this variety of cultures and histories between Christians and Muslims, becomes a national power to people who live in Spain and Portugal now, and consists of their basic mentality and fundamental culture.
Notes
(1) Wikipedia article : Islam in Spain
(2) Wikipedia article : Reconquista
(3) Wikipedia article : Iberian Peninsula
(4) Kang, Choi, p416 Portugal
(5) ibid p.425-426
(6) Encyclopedia Britannica online : Portugal
(7) Kang, Choi, p73
(8) Joseph, p167
(9) ibid, 270
(10) ibid
(11) Watt, p130
(12) Kang, Choi p.147
(13) ibid p.72
(14)James p30-31
(16) Kang, Choi p69
(17) Joseph, 1975 p152
(18) Ibid, p150
(19) ibid, p153
(20) Kang, Choi, p69
(21) Wikipedia spanish nobility
(22) Joseph, p179
(23) James p30-31
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11. Article : ‘Islam in Spain’ from Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Spain
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15. Encyclopedia Britannica : Portugal 17. Ganse, ‘Castile’ http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/spain/castile.html
